"""
Implements the PSLQ algorithm for integer relation detection,
and derivative algorithms for constant recognition.
"""

from mptypes import (mpf, eps, mp, mpmathify, nstr, inf)
from functions import (log, exp, sqrt)

from libmpf import to_fixed, from_man_exp, MODE
from libelefun import sqrt_fixed

# round to nearest integer (can be done more elegantly...)
def round_fixed(x, prec):
    return ((x + (1<<(prec-1))) >> prec) << prec

def pslq(x, tol=None, maxcoeff=1000, maxsteps=100, verbose=False):
    r"""
    Given a vector of real numbers `x = [x_0, x_1, ..., x_n]`, ``pslq(x)``
    uses the PSLQ algorithm to find a list of integers
    `[c_0, c_1, ..., c_n]` such that

    .. math ::

        |c_1 x_1 + c_2 x_2 + ... + c_n x_n| < \mathrm{tol}

    and such that `\max |c_k| < \mathrm{maxcoeff}`. If no such vector
    exists, :func:`pslq` returns ``None``. The tolerance defaults to
    3/4 of the working precision.

    **Examples**

    Find rational approximations for `\pi`::

        >>> from mpmath import *
        >>> mp.dps = 15
        >>> pslq([pi, 1], tol=0.01)
        [-7, 22]
        >>> pslq([pi, 1], tol=0.001)
        [113, -355]

    Pi is not a rational number with denominator less than 1000::

        >>> pslq([pi, 1])
        >>>

    To within the standard precision, it can however be approximated
    by at least one rational number with denominator less than `10^{12}`::

        >>> pslq([pi, 1], maxcoeff=10**12)
        [-75888275702L, 238410049439L]
        >>> print mpf(_[1])/_[0]
        -3.14159265358979

    The PSLQ algorithm can be applied to long vectors. For example,
    we can investigate the rational (in)dependence of integer square
    roots::

        >>> mp.dps = 30
        >>> pslq([sqrt(n) for n in range(2, 5+1)])
        >>>
        >>> pslq([sqrt(n) for n in range(2, 6+1)])
        >>>
        >>> pslq([sqrt(n) for n in range(2, 8+1)])
        [2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, -1]

    **Machin formulas**

    A famous formula for `\pi` is Machin's,

    .. math ::

        \frac{\pi}{4} = 4 \operatorname{acot} 5 - \operatorname{acot} 239

    There are actually infinitely many formulas of this type. Two
    others are

    .. math ::

        \frac{\pi}{4} = \operatorname{acot} 1

        \frac{\pi}{4} = 12 \operatorname{acot} 49 + 32 \operatorname{acot} 57
            + 5 \operatorname{acot} 239 + 12 \operatorname{acot} 110443

    We can easily verify the formulas using the PSLQ algorithm::

        >>> mp.dps = 30
        >>> pslq([pi/4, acot(1)])
        [1, -1]
        >>> pslq([pi/4, acot(5), acot(239)])
        [1, -4, 1]
        >>> pslq([pi/4, acot(49), acot(57), acot(239), acot(110443)])
        [1, -12, -32, 5, -12]

    We could try to generate a custom Machin-like formula by running
    the PSLQ algorithm with a few inverse cotangent values, for example
    acot(2), acot(3) ... acot(10). Unfortunately, there is a linear
    dependence among these values, resulting in only that dependence
    being detected, with a zero coefficient for `\pi`::

        >>> pslq([pi] + [acot(n) for n in range(2,11)])
        [0, 1, -1, 0, 0, 0, -1, 0, 0, 0]

    We get better luck by removing linearly dependent terms::

        >>> pslq([pi] + [acot(n) for n in range(2,11) if n not in (3, 5)])
        [1, -8, 0, 0, 4, 0, 0, 0]

    In other words, we found the following formula::

        >>> print 8*acot(2) - 4*acot(7)
        3.14159265358979323846264338328
        >>> print pi
        3.14159265358979323846264338328

    **Algorithm**

    This is a fairly direct translation to Python of the pseudocode given by
    David Bailey, "The PSLQ Integer Relation Algorithm":
    http://www.cecm.sfu.ca/organics/papers/bailey/paper/html/node3.html

    The present implementation uses fixed-point instead of floating-point
    arithmetic, since this is significantly (about 7x) faster.
    """

    n = len(x)
    assert n >= 2

    # At too low precision, the algorithm becomes meaningless
    prec = mp.prec
    assert prec >= 53

    if verbose and prec // max(2,n) < 5:
        print "Warning: precision for PSLQ may be too low"

    target = int(prec * 0.75)

    if tol is None:
        tol = mpf(2)**(-target)
    else:
        tol = mpmathify(tol)

    extra = 60
    prec += extra

    if verbose:
        print "PSLQ using prec %i and tol %s" % (prec, nstr(tol))

    tol = to_fixed(tol._mpf_, prec)
    assert tol

    # Convert to fixed-point numbers. The dummy None is added so we can
    # use 1-based indexing. (This just allows us to be consistent with
    # Bailey's indexing. The algorithm is 100 lines long, so debugging
    # a single wrong index can be painful.)
    x = [None] + [to_fixed(mpf(xk)._mpf_, prec) for xk in x]

    # Sanity check on magnitudes
    minx = min(abs(xx) for xx in x[1:])
    if not minx:
        raise ValueError("PSLQ requires a vector of nonzero numbers")
    if minx < tol//100:
        if verbose:
            print "STOPPING: (one number is too small)"
        return None

    g = sqrt_fixed((4<<prec)//3, prec)
    A = {}
    B = {}
    H = {}
    # Initialization
    # step 1
    for i in xrange(1, n+1):
        for j in xrange(1, n+1):
            A[i,j] = B[i,j] = (i==j) << prec
            H[i,j] = 0
    # step 2
    s = [None] + [0] * n
    for k in xrange(1, n+1):
        t = 0
        for j in xrange(k, n+1):
            t += (x[j]**2 >> prec)
        s[k] = sqrt_fixed(t, prec)
    t = s[1]
    y = x[:]
    for k in xrange(1, n+1):
        y[k] = (x[k] << prec) // t
        s[k] = (s[k] << prec) // t
    # step 3
    for i in xrange(1, n+1):
        for j in xrange(i+1, n):
            H[i,j] = 0
        if i <= n-1:
            if s[i]:
                H[i,i] = (s[i+1] << prec) // s[i]
            else:
                H[i,i] = 0
        for j in range(1, i):
            sjj1 = s[j]*s[j+1]
            if sjj1:
                H[i,j] = ((-y[i]*y[j])<<prec)//sjj1
            else:
                H[i,j] = 0
    # step 4
    for i in xrange(2, n+1):
        for j in xrange(i-1, 0, -1):
            #t = floor(H[i,j]/H[j,j] + 0.5)
            if H[j,j]:
                t = round_fixed((H[i,j] << prec)//H[j,j], prec)
            else:
                #t = 0
                continue
            y[j] = y[j] + (t*y[i] >> prec)
            for k in xrange(1, j+1):
                H[i,k] = H[i,k] - (t*H[j,k] >> prec)
            for k in xrange(1, n+1):
                A[i,k] = A[i,k] - (t*A[j,k] >> prec)
                B[k,j] = B[k,j] + (t*B[k,i] >> prec)
    # Main algorithm
    for REP in range(maxsteps):
        # Step 1
        m = -1
        szmax = -1
        for i in range(1, n):
            h = H[i,i]
            sz = (sqrt_fixed((4<<prec)//3, prec)**i * abs(h)) >> (prec*(i-1))
            if sz > szmax:
                m = i
                szmax = sz
        # Step 2
        y[m], y[m+1] = y[m+1], y[m]
        tmp = {}
        for i in xrange(1,n+1): H[m,i], H[m+1,i] = H[m+1,i], H[m,i]
        for i in xrange(1,n+1): A[m,i], A[m+1,i] = A[m+1,i], A[m,i]
        for i in xrange(1,n+1): B[i,m], B[i,m+1] = B[i,m+1], B[i,m]
        # Step 3
        if m <= n - 2:
            t0 = sqrt_fixed((H[m,m]**2 + H[m,m+1]**2)>>prec, prec)
            # A zero element probably indicates that the precision has
            # been exhausted. XXX: this could be spurious, due to
            # using fixed-point arithmetic
            if not t0:
                break
            t1 = (H[m,m] << prec) // t0
            t2 = (H[m,m+1] << prec) // t0
            for i in xrange(m, n+1):
                t3 = H[i,m]
                t4 = H[i,m+1]
                H[i,m] = (t1*t3+t2*t4) >> prec
                H[i,m+1] = (-t2*t3+t1*t4) >> prec
        # Step 4
        for i in xrange(m+1, n+1):
            for j in xrange(min(i-1, m+1), 0, -1):
                try:
                    t = round_fixed((H[i,j] << prec)//H[j,j], prec)
                # Precision probably exhausted
                except ZeroDivisionError:
                    break
                y[j] = y[j] + ((t*y[i]) >> prec)
                for k in xrange(1, j+1):
                    H[i,k] = H[i,k] - (t*H[j,k] >> prec)
                for k in xrange(1, n+1):
                    A[i,k] = A[i,k] - (t*A[j,k] >> prec)
                    B[k,j] = B[k,j] + (t*B[k,i] >> prec)
        # Until a relation is found, the error typically decreases
        # slowly (e.g. a factor 1-10) with each step TODO: we could
        # compare err from two successive iterations. If there is a
        # large drop (several orders of magnitude), that indicates a
        # "high quality" relation was detected. Reporting this to
        # the user somehow might be useful.
        best_err = maxcoeff<<prec
        for i in xrange(1, n+1):
            err = abs(y[i])
            # Maybe we are done?
            if err < tol:
                # We are done if the coefficients are acceptable
                vec = [int(round_fixed(B[j,i], prec) >> prec) for j in \
                range(1,n+1)]
                if max(abs(v) for v in vec) < maxcoeff:
                    if verbose:
                        print "FOUND relation at iter %i/%i, error: %s" % \
                            (REP, maxsteps, nstr(err / mpf(2)**prec, 1))
                    return vec
            best_err = min(err, best_err)
        # Calculate a lower bound for the norm. We could do this
        # more exactly (using the Euclidean norm) but there is probably
        # no practical benefit.
        recnorm = max(abs(h) for h in H.values())
        if recnorm:
            norm = ((1 << (2*prec)) // recnorm) >> prec
            norm //= 100
        else:
            norm = inf
        if verbose:
            print "%i/%i:  Error: %8s   Norm: %s" % \
                (REP, maxsteps, nstr(best_err / mpf(2)**prec, 1), norm)
        if norm >= maxcoeff:
            break
    if verbose:
        print "CANCELLING after step %i/%i." % (REP, maxsteps)
        print "Could not find an integer relation. Norm bound: %s" % norm
    return None

def findpoly(x, n=1, **kwargs):
    r"""
    ``findpoly(x, n)`` returns the coefficients of an integer
    polynomial `P` of degree at most `n` such that `P(x) \approx 0`.
    If no polynomial having `x` as a root can be found,
    :func:`findpoly` returns ``None``.

    :func:`findpoly` works by successively calling :func:`pslq` with
    the vectors `[1, x]`, `[1, x, x^2]`, `[1, x, x^2, x^3]`, ...,
    `[1, x, x^2, .., x^n]` as input. Keyword arguments given to
    :func:`findpoly` are forwarded verbatim to :func:`pslq`. In
    particular, you can specify a tolerance for `P(x)` with ``tol``
    and a maximum permitted coefficient size with ``maxcoeff``.

    For large values of `n`, it is recommended to run :func:`findpoly`
    at high precision; preferrably 50 digits or more.

    **Examples**

    By default (degree `n = 1`), :func:`findpoly` simply finds a linear
    polynomial with a rational root::

        >>> from mpmath import *
        >>> mp.dps = 15
        >>> findpoly(0.7)
        [-10, 7]

    The generated coefficient list is valid input to ``polyval`` and
    ``polyroots``::

        >>> nprint(polyval(findpoly(phi, 2), phi), 1)
        -2.0e-16
        >>> for r in polyroots(findpoly(phi, 2)):
        ...     print r
        ...
        -0.618033988749895
        1.61803398874989

    Numbers of the form `m + n \sqrt p` for integers `(m, n, p)` are
    solutions to quadratic equations. As we find here, `1+\sqrt 2`
    is a root of the polynomial `x^2 - 2x - 1`::

        >>> findpoly(1+sqrt(2), 2)
        [1, -2, -1]
        >>> print findroot(lambda x: x**2 - 2*x - 1, 1)
        2.4142135623731

    Despite only containing square roots, the following number results
    in a polynomial of degree 4::

        >>> findpoly(sqrt(2)+sqrt(3), 4)
        [1, 0, -10, 0, 1]

    In fact, `x^4 - 10x^2 + 1` is the *minimal polynomial* of
    `r = \sqrt 2 + \sqrt 3`, meaning that a rational polynomial of
    lower degree having `r` as a root does not exist. Given sufficient
    precision, :func:`findpoly` will usually find the correct
    minimal polynomial of a given algebraic number.

    **Non-algebraic numbers**

    If :func:`findpoly` fails to find a polynomial with given
    coefficient size and tolerance constraints, that means no such
    polynomial exists.

    We can verify that `\pi` is not an algebraic number of degree 3 with
    coefficients less than 1000::

        >>> mp.dps = 15
        >>> findpoly(pi, 3)
        >>>

    It is always possible to find an algebraic approximation of a number
    using one (or several) of the following methods:

        1. Increasing the permitted degree
        2. Allowing larger coefficients
        3. Reducing the tolerance

    One example of each method is shown below::

        >>> mp.dps = 15
        >>> findpoly(pi, 4)
        [95, -545, 863, -183, -298]
        >>> findpoly(pi, 3, maxcoeff=10000)
        [836, -1734, -2658, -457]
        >>> findpoly(pi, 3, tol=1e-7)
        [-4, 22, -29, -2]

    It is unknown whether Euler's constant is transcendental (or even
    irrational). We can use :func:`findpoly` to check that if is
    an algebraic number, its minimal polynomial must have degree
    at least 7 and a coefficient of magnitude at least 1000000::

        >>> mp.dps = 200
        >>> findpoly(euler, 6, maxcoeff=10**6, tol=1e-100, maxsteps=1000)
        >>>

    Note that the high precision and strict tolerance is necessary
    for such high-degree runs, since otherwise unwanted low-accuracy
    approximations will be detected. It may also be necessary to set
    maxsteps high to prevent a premature exit (before the coefficient
    bound has been reached). Running with ``verbose=True`` to get an
    idea what is happening can be useful.
    """
    x = mpf(x)
    assert n >= 1
    if x == 0:
        return [1, 0]
    xs = [mpf(1)]
    for i in range(1,n+1):
        xs.append(x**i)
        a = pslq(xs, **kwargs)
        if a is not None:
            return a[::-1]

def fracgcd(p, q):
    x, y = p, q
    while y:
        x, y = y, x % y
    if x != 1:
        p //= x
        q //= x
    if q == 1:
        return p
    return p, q

def pslqstring(r, constants):
    q = r[0]
    r = r[1:]
    s = []
    for i in range(len(r)):
        p = r[i]
        if p:
            z = fracgcd(-p,q)
            cs = constants[i][1]
            if cs == '1':
                cs = ''
            else:
                cs = '*' + cs
            if isinstance(z, (int, long)):
                if z > 0: term = str(z) + cs
                else:     term = ("(%s)" % z) + cs
            else:
                term = ("(%s/%s)" % z) + cs
            s.append(term)
    s = ' + '.join(s)
    if '+' in s or '*' in s:
        s = '(' + s + ')'
    return s or '0'

def prodstring(r, constants):
    q = r[0]
    r = r[1:]
    num = []
    den = []
    for i in range(len(r)):
        p = r[i]
        if p:
            z = fracgcd(-p,q)
            cs = constants[i][1]
            if isinstance(z, (int, long)):
                if abs(z) == 1: t = cs
                else:           t = '%s**%s' % (cs, abs(z))
                ([num,den][z<0]).append(t)
            else:
                t = '%s**(%s/%s)' % (cs, abs(z[0]), z[1])
                ([num,den][z[0]<0]).append(t)
    num = '*'.join(num)
    den = '*'.join(den)
    if num and den: return "(%s)/(%s)" % (num, den)
    if num: return num
    if den: return "1/(%s)" % den

def quadraticstring(t,a,b,c):
    if c < 0:
        a,b,c = -a,-b,-c
    u1 = (-b+sqrt(b**2-4*a*c))/(2*c)
    u2 = (-b-sqrt(b**2-4*a*c))/(2*c)
    if abs(u1-t) < abs(u2-t):
        if b:  s = '((%s+sqrt(%s))/%s)' % (-b,b**2-4*a*c,2*c)
        else:  s = '(sqrt(%s)/%s)' % (-4*a*c,2*c)
    else:
        if b:  s = '((%s-sqrt(%s))/%s)' % (-b,b**2-4*a*c,2*c)
        else:  s = '(-sqrt(%s)/%s)' % (-4*a*c,2*c)
    return s

# Transformation y = f(x,c), with inverse function x = f(y,c)
# The third entry indicates whether the transformation is
# redundant when c = 1
transforms = [
  (lambda x,c: x*c, '$y/$c', 0),
  (lambda x,c: x/c, '$c*$y', 1),
  (lambda x,c: c/x, '$c/$y', 0),
  (lambda x,c: (x*c)**2, 'sqrt($y)/$c', 0),
  (lambda x,c: (x/c)**2, '$c*sqrt($y)', 1),
  (lambda x,c: (c/x)**2, '$c/sqrt($y)', 0),
  (lambda x,c: c*x**2, 'sqrt($y)/sqrt($c)', 1),
  (lambda x,c: x**2/c, 'sqrt($c)*sqrt($y)', 1),
  (lambda x,c: c/x**2, 'sqrt($c)/sqrt($y)', 1),
  (lambda x,c: sqrt(x*c), '$y**2/$c', 0),
  (lambda x,c: sqrt(x/c), '$c*$y**2', 1),
  (lambda x,c: sqrt(c/x), '$c/$y**2', 0),
  (lambda x,c: c*sqrt(x), '$y**2/$c**2', 1),
  (lambda x,c: sqrt(x)/c, '$c**2*$y**2', 1),
  (lambda x,c: c/sqrt(x), '$c**2/$y**2', 1),
  (lambda x,c: exp(x*c), 'log($y)/$c', 0),
  (lambda x,c: exp(x/c), '$c*log($y)', 1),
  (lambda x,c: exp(c/x), '$c/log($y)', 0),
  (lambda x,c: c*exp(x), 'log($y/$c)', 1),
  (lambda x,c: exp(x)/c, 'log($c*$y)', 1),
  (lambda x,c: c/exp(x), 'log($c/$y)', 0),
  (lambda x,c: log(x*c), 'exp($y)/$c', 0),
  (lambda x,c: log(x/c), '$c*exp($y)', 1),
  (lambda x,c: log(c/x), '$c/exp($y)', 0),
  (lambda x,c: c*log(x), 'exp($y/$c)', 1),
  (lambda x,c: log(x)/c, 'exp($c*$y)', 1),
  (lambda x,c: c/log(x), 'exp($c/$y)', 0),
]

def identify(x, constants=[], tol=None, maxcoeff=1000, full=False,
    verbose=False):
    """
    Given a real number `x`, ``identify(x)`` attempts to find an exact
    formula for `x`. This formula is returned as a string. If no match
    is found, ``None`` is returned. With ``full=True``, a list of
    matching formulas is returned.

    As a simple example, :func:`identify` will find an algebraic
    formula for the golden ratio::

        >>> from mpmath import *
        >>> mp.dps = 15
        >>> identify(phi)
        '((1+sqrt(5))/2)'

    :func:`identify` can identify simple algebraic numbers and simple
    combinations of given base constants, as well as certain basic
    transformations thereof. More specifically, :func:`identify`
    looks for the following:

        1. Fractions
        2. Quadratic algebraic numbers
        3. Rational linear combinations of the base constants
        4. Any of the above after first transforming `x` into `f(x)` where
           `f(x)` is `1/x`, `\sqrt x`, `x^2`, `\log x` or `\exp x`, either
           directly or with `x` or `f(x)` multiplied or divided by one of
           the base constants
        5. Products of fractional powers of the base constants and
           small integers

    Base constants can be given as a list of strings representing mpmath
    expressions (:func:`identify` will ``eval`` the strings to numerical
    values and use the original strings for the output), or as a dict of
    formula:value pairs.

    In order not to produce spurious results, :func:`identify` should
    be used with high precision; preferrably 50 digits or more.

    **Examples**

    Simple identifications can be performed safely at standard
    precision. Here the default recognition of rational, algebraic,
    and exp/log of algebraic numbers is demonstrated::

        >>> mp.dps = 15
        >>> identify(0.22222222222222222)
        '(2/9)'
        >>> identify(1.9662210973805663)
        'sqrt(((24+sqrt(48))/8))'
        >>> identify(4.1132503787829275)
        'exp((sqrt(8)/2))'
        >>> identify(0.881373587019543)
        'log(((2+sqrt(8))/2))'

    By default, :func:`identify` does not recognize `\pi`. At standard
    precision it finds a not too useful approximation. At slightly
    increased precision, this approximation is no longer accurate
    enough and :func:`identify` more correctly returns ``None``::

        >>> identify(pi)
        '(2**(176/117)*3**(20/117)*5**(35/39))/(7**(92/117))'
        >>> mp.dps = 30
        >>> identify(pi)
        >>>

    Numbers such as `\pi`, and simple combinations of user-defined
    constants, can be identified if they are provided explicitly::

        >>> identify(3*pi-2*e, ['pi', 'e'])
        '(3*pi + (-2)*e)'

    Here is an example using a dict of constants. Note that the
    constants need not be "atomic"; :func:`identify` can just
    as well express the given number in terms of expressions
    given by formulas::

        >>> identify(pi+e, {'a':pi+2, 'b':2*e})
        '((-2) + 1*a + (1/2)*b)'

    Next, we attempt some identifications with a set of base constants.
    It is necessary to increase the precision a bit.

        >>> mp.dps = 50
        >>> base = ['sqrt(2)','pi','log(2)']
        >>> identify(0.25, base)
        '(1/4)'
        >>> identify(3*pi + 2*sqrt(2) + 5*log(2)/7, base)
        '(2*sqrt(2) + 3*pi + (5/7)*log(2))'
        >>> identify(exp(pi+2), base)
        'exp((2 + 1*pi))'
        >>> identify(1/(3+sqrt(2)), base)
        '((3/7) + (-1/7)*sqrt(2))'
        >>> identify(sqrt(2)/(3*pi+4), base)
        'sqrt(2)/(4 + 3*pi)'
        >>> identify(5**(mpf(1)/3)*pi*log(2)**2, base)
        '5**(1/3)*pi*log(2)**2'

    An example of an erroneous solution being found when too low
    precision is used::

        >>> mp.dps = 15
        >>> identify(1/(3*pi-4*e+sqrt(8)), ['pi', 'e', 'sqrt(2)'])
        '((11/25) + (-158/75)*pi + (76/75)*e + (44/15)*sqrt(2))'
        >>> mp.dps = 50
        >>> identify(1/(3*pi-4*e+sqrt(8)), ['pi', 'e', 'sqrt(2)'])
        '1/(3*pi + (-4)*e + 2*sqrt(2))'

    **Finding approximate solutions**

    The tolerance ``tol`` defaults to 3/4 of the working precision.
    Lowering the tolerance is useful for finding approximate matches.
    We can for example try to generate approximations for pi::

        >>> mp.dps = 15
        >>> identify(pi, tol=1e-2)
        '(22/7)'
        >>> identify(pi, tol=1e-3)
        '(355/113)'
        >>> identify(pi, tol=1e-10)
        '(5**(339/269))/(2**(64/269)*3**(13/269)*7**(92/269))'

    With ``full=True``, and by supplying a few base constants,
    ``identify`` can generate almost endless lists of approximations
    for any number (the output below has been truncated to show only
    the first few)::

        >>> for p in identify(pi, ['e', 'catalan'], tol=1e-5, full=True):
        ...     print p
        ...  # doctest: +ELLIPSIS
        e/log((6 + (-4/3)*e))
        (3**3*5*e*catalan**2)/(2*7**2)
        sqrt(((-13) + 1*e + 22*catalan))
        log(((-6) + 24*e + 4*catalan)/e)
        exp(catalan*((-1/5) + (8/15)*e))
        catalan*(6 + (-6)*e + 15*catalan)
        sqrt((5 + 26*e + (-3)*catalan))/e
        e*sqrt(((-27) + 2*e + 25*catalan))
        log(((-1) + (-11)*e + 59*catalan))
        ((3/20) + (21/20)*e + (3/20)*catalan)
        ...

    The numerical values are roughly as close to pi as permitted by the
    specified tolerance:

        >>> print e/log(6-4*e/3)
        3.14157719846001
        >>> print 135*e*catalan**2/98
        3.14166950419369
        >>> print sqrt(e-13+22*catalan)
        3.14158000062992
        >>> print log(24*e-6+4*catalan)-1
        3.14158791577159

    **Symbolic processing**

    The output formula can be evaluated as a Python expression.
    Note however that if fractions (like '2/3') are present in
    the formula, Python's :func:`eval()` may erroneously perform
    integer division. Note also that the output is not necessarily
    in the algebraically simplest form::

        >>> identify(sqrt(2))
        '(sqrt(8)/2)'

    As a solution to both problems, consider using SymPy's
    :func:`sympify` to convert the formula into a symbolic expression.
    SymPy can be used to pretty-print or further simplify the formula
    symbolically::

        >>> from sympy import sympify
        >>> sympify(identify(sqrt(2)))
        2**(1/2)

    Sometimes :func:`identify` can simplify an expression further than
    a symbolic algorithm::

        >>> from sympy import simplify
        >>> x = sympify('-1/(-3/2+(1/2)*5**(1/2))*(3/2-1/2*5**(1/2))**(1/2)')
        >>> x
        (3/2 - 5**(1/2)/2)**(-1/2)
        >>> x = simplify(x)
        >>> x
        2/(6 - 2*5**(1/2))**(1/2)
        >>> mp.dps = 30
        >>> x = sympify(identify(x.evalf(30)))
        >>> x
        1/2 + 5**(1/2)/2

    (In fact, this functionality is available directly in SymPy as the
    function :func:`nsimplify`, which is essentially a wrapper for
    :func:`identify`.)

    **Miscellaneous issues and limitations**

    The input `x` must be a real number. All base constants must be
    positive real numbers and must not be rationals or rational linear
    combinations of each other.

    The worst-case computation time grows quickly with the number of
    base constants. Already with 3 or 4 base constants,
    :func:`identify` may require several seconds to finish. To search
    for relations among a large number of constants, you should
    consider using :func:`pslq` directly.

    The extended transformations are applied to x, not the constants
    separately. As a result, ``identify`` will for example be able to
    recognize ``exp(2*pi+3)`` with ``pi`` given as a base constant, but
    not ``2*exp(pi)+3``. It will be able to recognize the latter if
    ``exp(pi)`` is given explicitly as a base constant.

    """

    solutions = []

    def addsolution(s):
        if verbose: print "Found: ", s
        solutions.append(s)

    x = mpf(x)

    # Further along, x will be assumed positive
    if x == 0:
        if full: return ['0']
        else:    return '0'
    if x < 0:
        sol = identify(-x, constants, tol, maxcoeff, full, verbose)
        if sol is None:
            return sol
        if full:
            return ["-(%s)"%s for s in sol]
        else:
            return "-(%s)" % sol

    if tol:
        tol = mpf(tol)
    else:
        tol = eps**0.7
    M = maxcoeff

    if isinstance(constants, dict):
        constants = [(mpf(v), name) for (name, v) in constants.items()]
    else:
        import sympy.mpmath
        constants = [(eval(p, sympy.mpmath.__dict__), p) for p in constants]

    # We always want to find at least rational terms
    if 1 not in [value for (name, value) in constants]:
        constants = [(mpf(1), '1')] + constants

    # PSLQ with simple algebraic and functional transformations
    for ft, ftn, red in transforms:
        for c, cn in constants:
            if red and cn == '1':
                continue
            t = ft(x,c)
            # Prevent exponential transforms from wreaking havoc
            if abs(t) > M**2 or abs(t) < tol:
                continue
            # Linear combination of base constants
            r = pslq([t] + [a[0] for a in constants], tol, M)
            s = None
            if r is not None and max(abs(uw) for uw in r) <= M and r[0]:
                s = pslqstring(r, constants)
            # Quadratic algebraic numbers
            else:
                q = pslq([mpf(1), t, t**2], tol, M)
                if q is not None and len(q) == 3 and q[2]:
                    aa, bb, cc = q
                    if max(abs(aa),abs(bb),abs(cc)) <= M:
                        s = quadraticstring(t,aa,bb,cc)
            if s:
                if cn == '1' and ('/$c' in ftn):
                    s = ftn.replace('$y', s).replace('/$c', '')
                else:
                    s = ftn.replace('$y', s).replace('$c', cn)
                addsolution(s)
                if not full: return solutions[0]

            if verbose:
                print "."

    # Check for a direct multiplicative formula
    if x != 1:
        # Allow fractional powers of fractions
        ilogs = [2,3,5,7]
        # Watch out for existing fractional powers of fractions
        logs = []
        for a, s in constants:
            if not sum(bool(findpoly(log(a)/log(i),1)) for i in ilogs):
                logs.append((log(a), s))
        logs = [(log(i),str(i)) for i in ilogs] + logs
        r = pslq([log(x)] + [a[0] for a in logs], tol, M)
        if r is not None and max(abs(uw) for uw in r) <= M and r[0]:
            addsolution(prodstring(r, logs))
            if not full: return solutions[0]

    if full:
        return sorted(solutions, key=len)
    else:
        return None

if __name__ == '__main__':
    import doctest
    doctest.testmod()
